Introduction
The best way to appreciate the brain’s functioning as far as memories are concerned is to consider what life without it can be like. One situation that presents itself to be used under a study is the case of Clive Wearing. Clive Wearing fell ill and ended up losing the part of his brain that is responsible for processing memories both short and long-term (Casper, 2007).
The herpes simplex, in the case of Clive Wearing, managed to overcome the defense mechanisms provided by the brain to form an inflammation called encephalitis. Clive, however, can play music and do daily activities and recognizes his wife, Mrs. Wearing (Casper, 2007). Similarly, he has a broad idea of his past life and can remember some of the critical occasions of his past life. By analyzing the significant functions and structure of the parts of the brain affected in Clive’s case, this paper shows the functions of the nervous system, the neurons, and the neurotransmitters and the differences between them.
Major Structures and Functions of the Different Brain Areas Affected
The medial temporal lobes, including the hippocampus, parahippocampal, and amygdala regions of Clive Wearing, were destroyed by the inflammation that occurred in the brain due to the disease. The medial temporal lobe, specifically the hippocampus, plays a vital role in retaining and converting short-term memory into long-term memory (Duarte et al., 2019). Similarly, the region is also responsible for episodic memory. Clive’s brain cannot carry out the standard encoding, where the information is translated into memory traces. Clive, however, can remember some of the data from the past before the hippocampal damage, like his father’s car’s number plate, which implies that his brain can reactivate.
The hippocampus retains the content learned, and its memory is embedded deep in the temporal lobe. It consolidates this short-term gained memory and stores it as long-term memory. The hippocampus is the cerebral cortex’s temporal extension and part of the limbic lobe (Duarte et al., 2019). The hippocampal sulcus separates the hippocampus’s regions, namely the dentate gyrus, entorhinal area, subiculum, and cornu ammonia.
The cornu ammonis is composed of C1 to C4. The subiculum is adjacent to the C1 and connects the hippocampal formation to the entorhinal cortex. The posterior cerebral artery, which branches into the posterior, middle, and anterior, supplies the hippocampus (Duarte et al., 2019). More reinforcement of the blood to the hippocampal formation is aided by the anterior choroidal. The damage to Clive’s hippocampus resulted in retrograde and anterograde amnesia, the loss and inability to recall and store memories.
Differences Between the Central Nervous System, the Peripheral Nervous System, and the Two Branches of the Autonomic System
Significant differences exist between the two branches of the autonomic system, the peripheral and central nervous systems. The central nervous system consists of the spinal cord and the brain. In contrast, the peripheral nervous system comprises the spinal, cranial, neuromuscular, and peripheral nerves, which can be grouped into the autonomic and somatic nervous systems (Battaglia & Thayer, 2022). The autonomic system controls the epithelial tissues, the smooth muscles, and the cardiac muscles. When analyzing the functioning of Clive, it is evident that the other nervous systems other than the central nervous system were unaffected. Similarly, only a section of his central nervous system was also affected. Clive can still conduct the activities carried out by the peripheral nervous and autonomic systems, mainly through muscle memory.
The autonomic nervous system’s two divisions comprise the Parasympathetic and the sympathetic. The parasympathetic handles the digestion and rest activities, while the sympathetichandles the fight-or-flight activities (Battaglia & Thayer, 2022). All the involuntary and voluntary responses are still intact in Clive Wearing, and they can perform daily actions. The central nervous system is the main area where all involuntary and voluntary information is processed. The peripheral nervous system then disseminates the information to the entire body accordingly (Battaglia & Thayer, 2022). The damage to the entire central nervous system paralyzes the whole body, while the peripheral damage can only result in localized damage.
Differences Between Glial Cells and Neurons in Structure and Function
Neurons are found in the nervous system and are the conducting cells of the system. The neuron structure is composed of cytoplasm surrounding a cell body. At least one nucleolus is in the neuron’s nucleus and lacks centrioles. Conversely, the Glialis is described as a non-neuronal cell component of the nervous system. These cells are in the peripheral and central nervous systems (Mielcarska et al., 2021). The astrocytes, oligodendrocytes, ependymal, and microglia cells constitute examples of the central nervous system’s glial cells, while interneurons, motor, and sensory types of neurons.
The neurons control the nerve impulse transmission between the body and the nervous system. Glial cells, on the other hand, are responsible for maintaining homeostasis, ensuring that there is neuron protection and support (Duarte et al., 2019). Neurons safeguard the transmission and receipt of electric signals or chemicals. In the case study of Clive Wearing, the neurons and the glial cells provided the pathway through which the HSV-1 reached the Hippocampus section of the brain (Duarte et al., 2019). Through retrograde transportation, the virus gets the sensory neuron termini axons.
Clive Wearing’s case study showed a situation where herpetic simplex encephalitis is produced due to the replication of the virus in the part of the neuron cells. When Clive Wearing was rushed to the hospital, the inflammation process had already begun, and this only meant one thing: the cells had started to die. HSV-1 induces acute HSE, which is responsible for the death of the oligodendrocytes, astrocytes, microglia, ependymal, and neurons, rendering them unable to transmit and receive signals hence the collapse (Mielcarska et al., 2021). Clive can remember that he had sons and daughters but cannot recall their names or faces.
Process of Communication Between Neurons
Neurons use the synapses to communicate, a term phrased as synaptic transmission. During synaptic transmission, two neurons are involved; one receives and disseminates the message. In this form of communication, the receiving neuron is called the post-synaptic, while the disseminating one is called the pre-synaptic neuron (Hahn et al., 2019). Dissemination and receiving information between two neurons are usually a chemical process, even though information flows through the brain entirely as a means of electrical activity. Positively charged calcium ions aid the chemical process flow in the neurons (Hahn et al., 2019). The pores on the neurons open upon receiving a signal to allow the influx of these ions through to the pre-synaptic end. Neurotransmitters result and are channeled through the synaptic gap after the axon terminal, called the synaptic cleft.
An interaction between the receptors, specialized proteins in the post-synaptic membrane, and the neurotransmitters follows (Chen et al., 2021). Diffusion enables the movement of small packets of neurotransmitters through the synaptic cleft. The receptors are unique because they would only allow the charged ions to pass through since they are small enough to go through the open pores. The influx of these ions is allowed through to the post-synaptic terminal after the opening of the pores to allow the interaction of the neurotransmitters.
Dendrites responsible for conducting the impulses propagate the process through the direction of the soma (Hahn et al., 2019). The process of neuron communication in the hippocampus to carry out the transfer of information from long-term memory to short-term memory was hindered in the case of Clive’s Wearing case. His hippocampus was affected by inflammation and could not be used to store information.
Role of Three Neurotransmitters and the Behaviors They Influence
Serotonin
Serotonin is essential in several human activities, being a monoamine neurotransmitter. The neurotransmitter is formed from the decarboxylation and hydroxylation of a group of amino acids called tryptophan. Even though a more significant neurotransmitter concentration is found in the gastrointestinal tract, a considerable quantity is located in the nervous system (Tadi, 2022). The neurotransmitter plays a vital role in many human body activities, including happiness and memory, and influences learning and other critical psychological processes such as appetite, sleep, and behavior (Tadi, 2022). In Clive’scase, serotonin is still present in the gut but not in the intestine. Clive can store memory due to the lack of the production of these neurotransmitters in the brain.
Dopamine
Dopamine is a hormone and neurotransmitter found in the brain. Dopamine plays a vital role in the normal functioning of the brain and the body. These activities encompass motor control, executive function, emotion, reward, and learning. Low or high dopamine levels in the brain can positively and negatively impact the body. This neurotransmitter is produced in the ventral tegmental area and then secreted into the parts of the brain. In the Clive Wearing case, all the other activities fueled by dopamine remain intact as he can do the daily activities requiring the body’s motor function (Casper, 2007). However, it is worth noting that most of Clive’s actions result from musical, muscle, and semantic memory.
Glutamate
Glutamate neurotransmitter is responsible for most of the communication that occurs in the brain. The neurotransmitter acts as the primary excitatory neurotransmitter and mediator of communication in the nervous system’s plasticity (Tadi, 2022). Glutamate is among the modifiable synapses, which some researchers believe to be a key player in the formation and storage of memory. Clive’s memory lacks this glutamate neurotransmitter and, as a result, cannot form and store short-term memory in the long-term memory section (Casper, 2007). An insufficient supply of these neurotransmitters explains why Clive only remembers information before the past seven seconds.
Conclusion
To conclude, this paper has analyzed the Clive Wearing case study focusing on the areas of the brain affected by inflammation. Functions and sections of the brain affected by the disease have been discussed. The paper has looked at the differences between the glial and the neurons, focusing on the structural and functional differences and how they relate to the case of Clive Wearing. A detailed description of the neurons’ communication process has also been discussed. Additionally, the sections of the neuron communication affected in Clive’s scenario have been outlined. Finally, in Clive’s case, glutamate, dopamine, and serotonin neurotransmitters have been discussed as among the three neurotransmitters affecting behavior.
References
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